ZANZIBAR BIODIVERSITY, CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY CRISIS
Toward Zanzibar Environmental Policy Formulation
Presented to
The Zanzibar Integrated Environment Policy Formulation Committee
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Environment
Zanzibar, Tanzania.
By Yusuf H Kombo
The Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry
Zanzibar
March 2010
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Abstract
Generally, Zanzibar looks green all the year around with natural richness in terrestrial and marine natural resources. It had a good balance between services, supply and demand. However, like many other poor countries, Zanzibar could not escape the fact of her people having a heavy direct dependence on natural resources. So, presently the resources, especially forests, have diminished mostly through human interference both in area and in species richness. Population growth leading to a higher demand for settlements, agriculture and other infrastructure developments had an impact on the resource base, threatening the productive and protective capacity of the resources. Among causes of forest biodiversity destruction include Over-exploitation, Shifting cultivation, Slash and burn cultivation, Wood cutting for firewood, charcoal production and boat building, and sand and rock mining. Mangroves and agriculture crops are also affected severely. In order to face the situation Zanzibar has set biodiversity conservation strategies that intend to:
i) Develop a body of resource managers capable of conserving biodiversity.
ii) Improve Legal and Policy framework for biodiversity conservation.
iii) Increase financial resources available for biodiversity conservation.
iv) Manage ecosystems by using integrated plans to provide economic benefits.
v) Increase conservation action in the field, prioritized to maximize effects on biodiversity.
vi) Increase knowledge of poorly studied species.
vii) Monitor trends of biodiversity.
viii) Build public support and participation in biological diversity conservation through education and awareness.
Conservation projects such as that of Jozani, Ngezi, Kiwengwa and HIMA Kusini all have the objectives of conserving biodiversity through community involvement. Within the set of the project, benefits sharing take leading position.
The issue of climate change is of great concern. Although no much study conducted on climate changes it has been noted that several extreme weather incidences have taken place during the past years in Zanzibar. For example the experienced the highest rise in sea –level and warmest temperature recorded in Zanzibar.
Energy is another important issue in Zanzibar. Biomass fuels (firewood, charcoal. coconut and agricultural residues) makes annual consumption of 1.5 million m3 accounting for 94.7% of the total energy consumed in the islands. This has a negative repercussion to biodiversity and coastal forests of east Africa if no measure taken urgently
This paper intends to present some issues on biodiversity, energy and suggests measure to be taken to rescue the situation
1.0) INTRODUCTION
Zanzibar being part of the United Republic of Tanzania and the most popular islands in the east Africa coasts, suffers severe natural resources degradation resulting from multiple factors that include population (app. 1,300,000 inhabitants) growth (3.1%) and tourism industry development. Among resources which face massive humiliation all over the Island, forest is at great risk of being wiped out.
The Government of Zanzibar (GoZ) realised the situation and took urgent measures to rescue the situation. The Zanzibar massive tree planting programme started in 1979 with the Zanzibar Forestry Development Project under the support of FINNIDA. The project ended in 1997. However, over the period of 6 consecutive years, since 1995, the GoZ, with support from the international community has conducted an ICD Programme through the Jozani Chwaka Bay Conservation Project (JCBCP), with the general goal of achieving sustainable conservation of the biodiversity of Zanzibar islands, in particular the last remaining ground water forest and connected fauna to improve the long term living conditions of the population of Unguja island (Kombo et al, 2006).
Generally, Zanzibar looks green all the year around with natural richness in terrestrial and marine natural resources. It had a good balance between services, supply and demand. However, like many other poor countries, Zanzibar could not escape the fact of her people having a heavy direct dependence on natural resources. So, presently the resources, especially forests, have diminished mostly through human interference both in area and in species richness. Population growth leading to a higher demand for settlements, agriculture and other infrastructure developments had an impact on the resource base, threatening the productive and protective capacity of the resources. (Kombo et al, 2006).
Traditional medicines have been widely used in both rural and urban areas in Zanzibar. Conservation of these important habitats is very crucial because they can directly protect and maintain the biological resources within these habitats. Conservation of natural forests through believes and traditions are also crucial. In Zanzibar many patches of natural forests were conserved by local communities for worship and cultural believe. These are sacred forests used to spread all over the island of Unguja and Pemba. The sacred forests are called misitu ya jadi or misitu ya mizimu in Zanzibar in Swahili language. The area of sacred forest is not clearly defined in administrative documents; however, it is apparent that the sacred forests ate seriously declining in both the size and quality of their resources in Zanzibar, Tanzania, as in other part of tropics (Madeweya, 2004).
Indeed, for the people of Zanzibar, forests provide numerous essential benefits, many of which are vital to the fundamental well being of the nation. It has been estimated that over 90% of the total population of Zanzibar is dependent on wood fuel as the main source of energy. House construction relies largely on supply of building materials from mangroves and the coral rag forests. These forests harbor a great number of wildlife species, some of which are endemic and endangered.
These papers intend to highlight some issues on forestry, biodiversity and energy issues as a way forward toward formulation of new Zanzibar integrated environment policy.
2.0) OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This literature review study aims at
i) Identifying issues and threats that face forest of Zanzibar
ii) Analysis the energy situation of Bio-energy situation of Zanzibar
iii) Suggest strategies and possible interventions that shall contribute to Zanzibar environments policy formulation
3.0) STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Geographical location
The study and review mainly covered the whole island of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is part of the United Republic of Tanzania with two major Islands and several small islets. The Islands lie in the north-south direction between latitude 04° 50” and 06° 30” South, and east-west direction between longitude 39° 10” and 39° 50” East. (DoE, 2010).
The Islands lies some 30-40 off the mainland East Africa coastline Unguja Island covers an area of 1,666 square kilometres and Pemba Island covers an area of 988 square kilometres giving a total land area of 2,654 square kilometres ((DoE, 2010).
3.2 Methodology
The study mail based on literature review, observations and empirical knowledge of author. Several documents on forestry, biodiversity, policies, conventions, invasive species, energy and mangroves have been reviewed and hints highlighted. In some placed, field observations were made to visualize and analyze the situation. Visits were made in Kiwengwa, Jozani, Maruhubi, Makoba bay and several cleared sites.
In some place discussion with knowledgeable elders and experienced staff in the Department of Commercial Crops, Fruits and Forestry (DCCFF), Department of Environment (DoE), Department of Achieves, Museum and Antiquity (DAMA) and Department of Energy was done to clarify some points.
4.0) ZANZIBAR FOREST RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION EFFORTS
4.1 Zanzibar forest highlights.
Zanzibar has about 12, 000 ha of reserved forest. Three of these Jozani, Ngezi, Kiwengwa and Masingini are strictly for biodiversity conservation while the rest (Unguja ukuu, Chaani, Kibele, and Dunga) are for exploitation and conservation in some places. Besides these forest, the islands has 118062 ha (44.5%) of bush land and thickets in community land. These thickets and bush land have been the major sources of wood and non-wood products in the Isles.
In Zanzibar, forest resources are under serious exploitation pressure. Out of 98,329 ha of coral rag forest (Leskinen et al 1997) about 530 hectares are cleared or destroyed annually (Leskinen and Silima, 1993). For instance, coral rag forests and mangroves are heavily exploited for poles, fuel and non-wood products.
Hunting for bush meat also causes serious repercussion on the wildlife species abundance and distribution. Thus, degradation of forest ecosystems eventually affects the well-being of forest product in Zanzibar. However, besides these destructions, forestry has significantly contributed to livelihood of people of Zanzibar although its value is not clearly determined in economic terms and especially when it comes to ethical and environment values which are difficult to calculate in monetary values (Kombo et al 2006)
The destruction of coastal resources and forests is a result of
a) Limited income generation activities
b) Demographic changes
c) high demand of wood and non wood based products
d) clearing for agriculture, settlement and other development programmes
e) Low priority in national development plans and budgets
4.1.1 Coastal thickets
Coral rag land of Zanzibar occupying about 60% of the total land area forming the most potential land for agriculture and forestry. The coral soil is classified into maweni (renzic to lithic leptosols) and uwanda (mollic to renzic leptosols). The former consists of high humic black loam. Uwanda are shallow, humic reddish brown fine clay loam, less fertile and neutral to a light alkaline (Hettige, 1990, Coral land is covered with semi-deciduous to evergreen bush. The natural coastal thicket is dominated by Diospyrus consolatae and Euclea racemosa. Burceraceae, Capparidaceae, Ebenaceae, Annonaceae, Apocynaceae and Caesalpiniaceae. Encephalartos hildebrandtii is among the more common valuable endemic species and is becoming rare in privately owned patches due land clearing and burning for agriculture. Same case applies to mpande which is strongly used for medicines. (Harvey, 1994, Kombo et al 2006).
i) Causes of forest biodiversity destruction
a) Over-exploitation of forest: The forest of Zanzibar is under pressure due to Unregulated and intensive harvesting resulting from several factors that include demographic, fuels, construction and building materials, foods, medicines, and handicrafts. It is estimated that out of 98,329 ha of coral rag forest (Leskinen et al 1997) about 530 hectares (tree cut equivalent) are cleared or destroyed annually (Leskinen and Silima, 1993). In recent years pressure of cutting has shifted from coral rags to mangroves.
b) Shifting cultivation: The poor state of the coral rag bush is the outcome of a degraded bush fallow system where the fallow period has been progressively reduced in some cases to the extremely short term of only one or two years instead of the customary ten to fifteen years due to shortage of land.
c) Slash and burn cultivation: Indiscriminate clearing for farming, often by fire is another factor of significant importance. The deforestation or degradation that is taking place is depriving wildlife of important shelter and making them more vulnerable to hunting activities.
d) Wood cutting for firewood, charcoal production and boat building: Many villagers living near coastal forest have been heavily involve on wood cutting, charcoal burning, lime burning, cutting of poles for building purposes and wood for boat building. This situation is deteriorating as the years gone. It is estimated that over 500 hectors of coral rag forest is cleared each year (UNEP/FAO/PAP, 2000) while hundred of trees are cut in deep fertile western side of the island just for construction.
e) Sand and rock mining: As constructions proceed, sand and rock mining is increasing. Where sands are dug, hundreds of coconut trees and other fruits trees are felt in search for sand. Magharibi district and Kaskazini region of Unguja Island suffer most. IN Pemba, excavation of deed coral reef for brick making has lead to detrimental situation to tree resources of the island.
4.1.2 Mangrove forests
i) Acreage: Mangrove ecosystems cover a total of 18,000 hectares in Zanzibar (Unguja Island 6000 ha; and Pemba 12,000ha) and they are best developed in estuaries. In Zanzibar, mangroves generally occur in protected bays such as in the Makoba and Chwaka bays. They are however more luxuriant in Pemba where they are found mostly along the western and southern coast of the entire island.
ii) Species: According Silima et al (2010), Zanzibar has ten and species of Mangrove namely Avicennia marina (Mchu), Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (Msisi/Mfinzi or mui), Ceriops tagal (Mkandaa/Mkoko mwekundu), Heritiera littoralis (Msikundazi or Mkungu), Lumnitzera racemosa (Kikandaa or mkandaa dume/Kilalamba), Rhizophora mucronata (Mkoko magondi),
(Mlilana), Xylocarpus granatum (Mkomafi/Mkaumwa/Mkuo), Xylocarpus molucensis (Mkomafi dume/Mkaumwa wa Kijani) and (Pemphis acidula Kilalamba dume) . Local names in brackets)
iii) Habitation: Mangrove forests are considered critical habitats with great ecological and socio-economic value. They are also keystone ecosystems in that they have high productivity, producing large quantities of organic matter that serve as food for many terrestrial and marine creatures. Mangroves also serve as feeding and breeding grounds for various marine organisms (Kombo at al 2006) that include fishes, crabs, lobsters, prawn and some eels
iv) Beach stabilization and Sedimentation: Mangroves filter pollutants and facilitate the settlement of sediments, which would otherwise be detrimental to surrounding sea-grass beds and coral reefs. Mangroves also play an important role in stabilizing the coastline, thus preventing shoreline erosion.
v) Economic: Mangroves are a source of firewood, charcoal, building poles, materials for boat construction, tannin and traditional medicines. Additionally, mangrove forests serve as great tourist attractions and have important scientific value (Priority Action Programme, 2000). However, there are many factors that leading to the destruction of mangroves. These include man made activities and natural calamity.
vi) Rationale for Mangrove Management.
Until recently, efforts to conserve natural flora and fauna in Zanzibar have been focused on Jozani and Ngezi terrestrial forests. A few years ago, [add dates] a management plan for these two forests was prepared with Finnish assistance. On the other hand the mangrove forests have not received much attention. They have remained largely as open access unprotected resources despite the fact that they have been legally recognised as forest reserves under the forest reserve decree of 1965. Attempts at management of these resources have also encountered difficulties for large areas such as Chwaka [what kinds of difficulties…?]
vii) Goals and Objectives of DCCFF for mangrove management.
The overall goal of mangroves conservation is to improve people’s livelihoods while maintaining mangrove ecosystem integrity and productivity.
a) Intermediate Goal 1: To enhance the contribution of mangroves ecosystem to the economy of the surrounding communities by rational utilization of mangrove ecosystem on a sustainable basis.
b) Intermediate Goal 2: To maintain a habitat for the flora and fauna of this unique ecosystem.
c) Intermediate Goal 3: To improve Institutional capabilities of the body responsible for mangrove management.
d) Intermediate Goal 4: To empower and recognize the needs of communities in mangrove management.
viii) Threats to mangroves: The mangroves of Zanzibar face diverse number of threats that jeopardized their existence. Among the threats include clearing for salt production, cutting for fuel wood/charcoal/poles (Kombo and Makame, 2000 unpublished report) and pests. Some mangrove swamps have been exploited to such an extent that without human intervention no natural regeneration would occur and would not recover their ecological functions. According to Kombo eta all (2010, un published paper), mangroves cutting occur all Fire wood over the islands and that mangroves are cut for multiple of reasons that include Charcoal, making, poles ,Lime making, Boat building and Building of landing sites of marine boats along the beaches
It has been reported that there is an existence of pest problem in different mangroves areas of Pemba. Moth’s larvae have been reported to attack mangroves almost in all areas of Pemba especially Micheweni and Muwambe. In the resources assessment task of 2010, Kombo and his colleagues exposed that then problem of pest in Pemba has long history back to 50 years. The assessment indicated that 11% of the respondents reported that they remember sighting the pest in the period ranging from 10 to 50 years ago. Moreover, the study revealed that it is common case for Avicenia marina (Mchu) to be attacked by insects. The invasion of pest in mangroves is attributed to several factors. The research showed that among the factors that lead to destruction of mangroves by pests include opening new roads, tourism business and dynamite fishing.
4.1.2 The wild fauna
According to Kombo et al (2010) (in coastal resources assessment with the Department of Environment) revealed that the misuses and abuse to natural resources have a negative impact on flora and fauna. Tree cutting reduce shelter for wild animals. Overexploitation of forest and unplanned development ventures also has disastrous consequences on the lives of wild creatures as they miss shelters and nesting sites. The study revealed that huge numbers of trees species which used to be very common and widely spread in the islands are in danger of being wiped off. All over the survey area, community members have shown vivid concern on the loss of fauna
List of Endangered wild fauna as identified by community during the survey.
1) Chesi (Pemba blue ducker)
Celphalopus monticola pembae
iii) Habitation: Mangrove forests are considered critical habitats with great ecological and socio-economic value. They are also keystone ecosystems in that they have high productivity, producing large quantities of organic matter that serve as food for many terrestrial and marine creatures. Mangroves also serve as feeding and breeding grounds for various marine organisms (Kombo at al 2006) that include fishes, crabs, lobsters, prawn and some eels
iv) Beach stabilization and Sedimentation: Mangroves filter pollutants and facilitate the settlement of sediments, which would otherwise be detrimental to surrounding sea-grass beds and coral reefs. Mangroves also play an important role in stabilizing the coastline, thus preventing shoreline erosion.
v) Economic: Mangroves are a source of firewood, charcoal, building poles, materials for boat construction, tannin and traditional medicines. Additionally, mangrove forests serve as great tourist attractions and have important scientific value (Priority Action Programme, 2000). However, there are many factors that leading to the destruction of mangroves. These include man made activities and natural calamity.
vi) Rationale for Mangrove Management.
Until recently, efforts to conserve natural flora and fauna in Zanzibar have been focused on Jozani and Ngezi terrestrial forests. A few years ago, [add dates] a management plan for these two forests was prepared with Finnish assistance. On the other hand the mangrove forests have not received much attention. They have remained largely as open access unprotected resources despite the fact that they have been legally recognised as forest reserves under the forest reserve decree of 1965. Attempts at management of these resources have also encountered difficulties for large areas such as Chwaka [what kinds of difficulties…?]
vii) Goals and Objectives of DCCFF for mangrove management.
The overall goal of mangroves conservation is to improve people’s livelihoods while maintaining mangrove ecosystem integrity and productivity.
a) Intermediate Goal 1: To enhance the contribution of mangroves ecosystem to the economy of the surrounding communities by rational utilization of mangrove ecosystem on a sustainable basis.
b) Intermediate Goal 2: To maintain a habitat for the flora and fauna of this unique ecosystem.
c) Intermediate Goal 3: To improve Institutional capabilities of the body responsible for mangrove management.
d) Intermediate Goal 4: To empower and recognize the needs of communities in mangrove management.
viii) Threats to mangroves: The mangroves of Zanzibar face diverse number of threats that jeopardized their existence. Among the threats include clearing for salt production, cutting for fuel wood/charcoal/poles (Kombo and Makame, 2000 unpublished report) and pests. Some mangrove swamps have been exploited to such an extent that without human intervention no natural regeneration would occur and would not recover their ecological functions. According to Kombo eta all (2010, un published paper), mangroves cutting occur all Fire wood over the islands and that mangroves are cut for multiple of reasons that include Charcoal, making, poles ,Lime making, Boat building and Building of landing sites of marine boats along the beaches
It has been reported that there is an existence of pest problem in different mangroves areas of Pemba. Moth’s larvae have been reported to attack mangroves almost in all areas of Pemba especially Micheweni and Muwambe. In the resources assessment task of 2010, Kombo and his colleagues exposed that then problem of pest in Pemba has long history back to 50 years. The assessment indicated that 11% of the respondents reported that they remember sighting the pest in the period ranging from 10 to 50 years ago. Moreover, the study revealed that it is common case for Avicenia marina (Mchu) to be attacked by insects. The invasion of pest in mangroves is attributed to several factors. The research showed that among the factors that lead to destruction of mangroves by pests include opening new roads, tourism business and dynamite fishing.
4.1.2 The wild fauna
According to Kombo et al (2010) (in coastal resources assessment with the Department of Environment) revealed that the misuses and abuse to natural resources have a negative impact on flora and fauna. Tree cutting reduce shelter for wild animals. Overexploitation of forest and unplanned development ventures also has disastrous consequences on the lives of wild creatures as they miss shelters and nesting sites. The study revealed that huge numbers of trees species which used to be very common and widely spread in the islands are in danger of being wiped off. All over the survey area, community members have shown vivid concern on the loss of fauna
List of Endangered wild fauna as identified by community during the survey.
1) Chesi (Pemba blue ducker)
Celphalopus monticola pembae
2) Chonje
Unidentified
Unidentified
3) Ninga (green pigeon)
Treron pemba australis pembanus
4) Chechele
5) Chui wa Zanzibar (Zanzibar leopard)
Panthers pardus adersi
5) Chui wa Zanzibar (Zanzibar leopard)
Panthers pardus adersi
6) Nguruwe (wild pigs, bush pigs)
Patamochoerus porcus
Patamochoerus porcus
7) Kanga Mwitu (helmeted guines-fowl)
Numida melagris
Numida melagris
8)Paa nunga (adders dickers)
Celphalopus adersi
9) Ngawa (Rasel/javan civet
Viverricula indica rasse
10) Kaongo Ngo’mbe
Unidentified
11) Kima Punju (Redcolobus monkeys)
Procolobus kirkii
12) Kima (Sykes monkeys)
Cercopitherus mitis albogularis
13) Mwewe
Accipiter tachiro pembaenus
14) Kororo
-
15) Kuku Ziwa (African moorhen)
Gallinule chloropus meri
16) Kunguru wa Kibaka (Pieda crow)
Corvus olbus
17) Kwau (brown headed parot)
Poicephalus cryptoxanthes
18) Mramba (drongo)
Dicrurus adsimilis
19) Kenge (nile monitor)
Varanus niloticus niloticus
20) Bundi (African wood owl)
Ciccoba woodfordii
21) Pelele (Zanzibar tree hyrax)
Dendrohyrax validus neumanni
22) Gangawia/ukukwi/peku (Boomslang)
Dipholidus typus
23) Kasa (turtles)
Chelonia mydas, lepidochelus olivacea, eritmochelus imbricara, Carreta carreta
24) Guru guru (plated lizards)
Plated lizard
25) Popo wa Pemba (Pemba flying fox)
Mops bakarii
SOURCE: Kombo at al 2010.
4.1.3 Hidden Values of Forest resources
According to Kombo (20006), the economic contribution of forests, forestry sector and forest products in Zanzibar are not clearly calculated and thus its contribution to the GDP is poorly presented. The contribution of forestry and green resources in national economy can only be seen in tangible benefits such as fire wood, charcoal, timber/poles, medicines, honey and fruits. However, its monetary value in daily life of citizens is still vague. Similarly, the intangible non-monetary values are unclear to many policy makers, thus, unrecognized easily. Environmental amelioration, water conservation, contribution to rain making, wind breaking, green attractive scenes, carbon sinking, protection against dangerous rays, protection of land against erosion, shelter to both human and wild animals etc, making forests with a value worth trillions and trillions of dollars value. However, it is not easy to calculate. The only time when human can notice and feel its importance is when these things are missing. Desserts are good examples.
4.2 Biological diversity conservation.
The conservation strategy of natural forests in Zanzibar has for many years been concentrating on the conservation of the two main forests. Ngezi, Msingini and Jozani which were considered as very important for preserving the history and culture of Zanzibar and its faunal and floral biodiversity through with particular attention being paid to endemic species of the country. This move has left many other forests less protected and therefore over exploited. The knowledge of biodiversity was at minimum level, consequently, attention was on management of the natural forests reserves targeting at exploitation of important timber species.
The clearing of large parts of the moist high forests of Zanzibar means that the remaining true forests as opposed to bushes are very important for plant and animal conservation. Although loses in biodiversity have become widely recognized as a serious consequence of human population growth, Zanzibar has been late in addressing over exploitation and mismanagement of the natural environment a major cause of biodiversity loss. Due to this, a considerable number of plant and animal species of high biological value are highly threatened or nearly extinct.
4.2.1) The National Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
In 1996 Zanzibar formulated her National Conservation Strategy, which addressed the causes of biodiversity decline and the factors underlying such trends.
The overall Objective of the Strategy is to reduce the negative impacts on biodiversity in Zanzibar, and develop sustainable economic and social use of indigenous ecosystems and species. Components of the strategy were:
i) Develop a body of resource managers capable of conserving biodiversity.
ii) Improve Legal and Policy framework for biodiversity conservation.
iii) Increase financial resources available for biodiversity conservation.
iv) Manage ecosystems by using integrated plans to provide economic benefits.
v) Increase conservation action in the field, prioritized to maximize effects on biodiversity.
vi) Increase knowledge of poorly studied species.
vii) Monitor trends of biodiversity.
viii) Build public support and participation in biological diversity conservation through education and awareness.
4.2.2 Biodiversity conservation efforts
4.2.2.1 The Jozani and Chwaka Bay Conservation Area
Jozani Forest reserve, which primarily forms the Jozani Chwaka Bay Conservation Area (JCBCA) with Chwaka Bay Mangrove Forest Reserve, is the only remaining extensive outstanding and most natural forest on Unguja. If the area is to survive for the next generations, then its biodiversity conservation status should be upgraded above the current level. The area has been developed to the first Jozani National Park (JNP) in Zanzibar.
i) Ecological values associated with JCBCA
The NP has high conservation value not only to Zanzibar but, the world. It is one of the biological hot spot in East Africa eco-region. Characteristics and features that are flagged by Jozani NP are:
· The JNP is the largest refuge for many animal species that used to occupy most of the western half of Unguja.
· The JNP Contains species of national and international significance.
· The JNP Contains a remarkable variety of habitats with a high biological diversity,
· The JNP is an important resource base for inhabitants of adjacent villages,
· The JNP has high ecotourism potential due to its nature, diversity and red colobus monkeys presence.
· The JNP has educational value to school children.
· JNP brought together nine villages that surround the forest into one organization – The Jozani Environment Conservation Association (JECA)
a) JNP and State policy: The JNP has been earmarked for its potential for nature tourism development, which is in line with the GoZ policy in the effort to raise her economy through tourism development. For the local population the economic and cultural importance of JCBCA is indisputable. However, JNP is facing resource over exploitation due to an increasing human population of the island that leads to an increased demand for forest products. Additionally, the surrounding areas are highly over exploited due to shifting cultivation as a means to sustain their livelihoods.
b) Village conservation Committees: In order to rescue the situation and the park from destruction, Community have bee jointly involved in the process of conservation though JECA which represents nine villages through their Villager Conservation Committees (VCCs). Each village conservation committee has its own Local Management Agreement with Zanzibar Forestry administrator. Village have also developed their own Land Use Management Agreement (LUMA) in which vegetation mapping was conducted prior to land use management agreement developed.
4.2.2.2 Kiwengwa Pongwe Forest Reserve
i) Location
The Kiwengwa-Pongwe Conservation Area (KPFR) approximately 3323.5ha lying between coordinates 538000 to 544100 longitude and 9329900 to 9343700. It is the single largest existing natural forest found in the Northern zone of Unguja Island surrounded by fifteen villages. Moreover, the KPFR is one of the single most important catchment forests with water sources that sustain the villages around the forest and tourism industry. It’s an important source of fuel wood for the majority of the people in Northern Region of Unguja Island.
ii) The Ecological Values of KPFR
Kiwengwa-Pongwe Forest Reserve (KPFR) is one of the most diverse areas in the Zanzibar Coral rag zone. The reserve harbors endemic and near endemic species. All these species need to be protected and some of them may need special attention and conservation programmes. KPFR’s habitat diversity, species richness (both flora and fauna) and function as a water catchments zone illustrates the need for conservation of this area. The forest harbors several potential water sources (water caves) that are used by the nearby community. On species richness, KPFR has a diverse flora and fauna. Species resident in KPFR include the endemic Procolobus kirkii (red colobus monkey), Cephalophus adersi (Ader’s duiker), Sykes and Blue monkeys, Sunni antelope, a variety of snakes and possibly Panthera pardusi adersi (Zanzibar Leopard). On plant species, Kiwengwa-Pongwe has numerous species, which contain medicinal as well as aesthetical values. Species from KPFR are harvested as sources of energy, and for construction purposes and all water used in the area comes from these catchments (Kombo et al 2006).
a) Endemic species of animals
DCCFF (2003) reported that, ‘many species on Zanzibar and Pemba have existed or evolved in isolation from mainland Tanzania for 10,000 – 15,000 thousand years. This has resulted in the development of a number of endemic and near endemic species. At least six mammal species are known to be endemic to Zanzibar. These species are found in Kiwengwa-Pongwe Forest reserve
Endemic and near endemic animal species fiund in Kiwengwa ofrest
Panthera pardus adersi
Procolobus kirkii
Cephalopus adersi
Cephalopus monticola
Otolemur garnettii
Galagoides zanzibaricus
Rhynchocyon petersi adersi
iii) The ongoing conservation initiative
For the purpose of saving the last remaining biological resources of KPFR, a small project to support the process was initiated with the following objectives:
- To assist in the creation, development and management of Kiwengwa-Pongwe Forest Reserve.
- To improve the local economy and living conditions through ecotourism activities and through advice in sensible use of those zones in and outside the Kiwengwa-Pongwe Forest Reserve, which are dedicated for sustainable use by local communities.
- To create awareness of the importance of conserving natural resources through extension, training and conservation education ‘on site’.
a) Conservation Strategies that were set include
· Establishment and Management plan Preparation.
· Eco-tourism and Conservation education.
· Project Meetings and Reporting
· Working jointly with surrounding communities and hoteliers
iv) Immediate Threats to Kiwengwa forest and thickets
In the KPFR, the immediate threats to biodiversity were identified as deforestation, forest fragmentation, forest degradation, over exploitation of species, decline of the area’s ability to provide biodiversity values and livelihood service due to dwindling wildlife population, loss of habitat, and degradation of the forest resources, decline of soil fertility and increasing human population. These process are accentuated by among others, break down of indigenous land tenure and management system, increasing urban and tourist demand for resources and lack of local level resources policies and plans.
4.2.2.3 Ngezi Forest Reserve
The forest is situated in the northwest corner of Pemba island (39o42’E, 4o55’S) in Micheweni district about 50 km off the coat of mainland Tanzania. The gazetted area is recoded as 1456 ha. The reserve is surrounded by the agricultural land (Salim et al, 1996).
Salim et all, 1996 classified the vegetation type Ngezi into five main classes namely a moist forest (943ha, 64%), coastal evergreen thickets (200 ha, 14%), swamp forest (33 ha, 2%), Open swamp/marsh (65 ha -15%), Philippia – heath (224 ha, 224 ha 15 %) and others (11 ha, 1%). Mangroves grow on the intertidal seashores in the southern part of the reserve. Mangrove species include Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera litoralis and Xylocarpus granatum.
Like Jozani forest in Unguja Island, Ngezi forest is rich in valuable species of flora and fauna for both economic and conservation purposes. Salim et al, 2003, highlights species found in Ngezi forest as follows:
i) Flora
– Species such as Chrysalidocarpus pembanus (mpapindi) used as ornamental and Quassia undula (mjoho) are classified as global rare.
– Species such as Odyendae, and Bombax, are restricted to East Africa forests.
– Phillipia mafiensis is unique to Mafia and Pemba, but Phillipia has already been destroyed in Mafia.
– Species such as Samandera sp. and Chrysophyllum lanceolatum (Mkuti) have originated from India (Salim et al 1996)
ii) Fauna
– Pteropus voetzkow (Pemba flying fox) is used as food in Pemba and is a near endemic to the island. Other species which that are very important and are threatened include: Cercopitherrus species (vervet monkey) Cephalophus monticola pembae (Pemba blue duikers), and Otus pembae (Pemba scops owl) (Salim et al 1996).
Care (2003) described Ngezi forest to possesses unique vegetation types, which support wildlife species of both national and international significance, and that, it forms part of the Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests Biodiversity Hotspot, one of the planets 25 most diverse, but threatened ecosystems
4.2.2.4 Threats facing the jungle.
Like many forest patches of Zanzibar, Ngezi is facing threats of being degraded. According to CARE (2003), the threats are accelerated by low technical knowhow for both farmers and the government staff who are supposed to facilitate promotion of improved farming. The outcome of low agricultural production and lack of other alternative sources of livelihood is not only deterioration of Ngezi-Vumawimbi biodiversity through encroachment by the community, but has created a vicious cycle of poverty manifested by unhealthy human labour practices, child malnutrition, poor school attendance and rural-urban migration.
4.2.2.5 Potential of Tourism development
High biodiversity values of the forest, white sand beaches, mangroves, most forest and swamps, birds, reptiles and historic feature within and in the surrounding villages, make Ngezi to the most potential site for tourism in Pemba Island.
These potential tourism developments offer the local communities an alternative source of income in terms of employment and increased markets for local produce. They also represent a potential environmental problem if the development scheme are not properly controlled (CARE, 2003).
4.2.2.6 Ongoing conservation initiatives
i) The Sustainable Resource Use and Community Development program
The Sustainable Resource Use and Community Development program (in Kiswahili “Matumizi Endelevu ya Maliasili na Maendeleo ya Jamii, Ngezi-Vumawimbi (MEMMA))” initiate under CARE Tanzania support conservation and livelihood improvement in the surrounding villages. Usually the program aims at encouraging effective management of the natural resources within Ngezi-Vumawimbi whilst enhancing the livelihoods of the local communities through achieved through capacity building, good governance, and establishment of income generation activities.
a) Long-term Goal:
The long-term goal of the program is to ensure the continued existence of the globally significant ecosystems contained within Ngezi-Vumawimbi in a participatory, sustainable manner, whilst at the same time raising the livelihood assets of the 11, 200 inhabitants within the ten communities surrounding Ngezi-Vumawimbi forest. This will be achieved through a mixture of capacity building in the areas of natural resource management, good governance and improved income generation activities.
b) Program Objectives
To achieve the long-term goal the program has been split into four main program objectives, each considering an individual theme, which cover the conservation of natural resources, improved governance amongst stakeholders, increased livelihood assets of the communities and promoting the significance of Ngezi-Vumawimbi at a national level, as well as on the world stage.
4.3) Alien Invasive Species and Their Potential Threats to biodiversity Ecosystems of Zanzibar
4.3.1 Introduces species
The fragility of forest biodiversity and ecosystems of Zanzibar Island are different to many African state islands. The Biodiversity richness in state islands is in danger of being eradicated due to agriculture land expansion, construction, annual fires and Introduction of new species new to coastal islands environments. Introduces species are responsible of other species, especially on small islands. In such isolated ecosystems, a new predator, competitor or pathogen can rapidly suppress species that did not co evolve with the new ecosystem (SADC, IUCN AND SARDC (2000).
“Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each ecosystem is necessary to preserve the web of life that sustains all living things. In his book "The Diversity of Life," Wilson (1992) suggested that, "It is reckless to suppose that biodiversity can be diminished indefinitely without threatening humanity itself." Human activity has caused an alarming number of species to become extinct. When a large number of species perform various functions, an ecosystem is more stable. The fewer species there are filling certain niches, the more unstable the environment becomes. Humans have always depended on the Earth's biodiversity for food, shelter, and health. Biodiversity also supplies indirect services to humans, which include drinkable water, clean air, and fertile soils. The loss of populations, species, or groups of species from an ecosystem can upset its normal function and disrupt these ecological services (Nahonyo et al, 2002)”.
The fragility of forest biodiversity and ecosystems of Zanzibar Island are not quite different to many East African islands, Tanzania in particular. SADC, IUCN and SARDC (2000) cautioned that "In such isolated ecosystems, a new predator, competitor or pathogen can rapidly suppress species that did not co evolve with the new come". some of effects of allien invasive species highlighted by SADC, IUCN, and SARDC 200 are:
i) Some alien species, such as Lantana camara, are also invasive, spreading naturally and producing significant change in terms of composition, structure or ecological process. Biodiversity is reduced by these invasive plants through replacement of diverse systems with a single species stand.
ii) Alien plant species may also alter soil chemistry through nutrient enrichment, which occurs with nitrogen-fixing plants. In a nutrient-poor ecosystem, the changes induced by the alien species may facilitate aggressive plants to dominate those that are adapted to nutrient-poor soils. For example, Wattles (Acacia mearnsii) is rapidly invading grassland areas such as Nyanga in eastern Zimbabwe. Some alien plants create unfavorable soil conditions, which may prevent native vegetation from establishing. For example, Gmelina aborea (snapldragon tree) common in Malawi makes the soil too acidic for the growth of many other plants
iii) Alien species can also interfere with native species by altering an ecosystems hydrology. This can be in the form of decreasing or increasing surface run-off, depending on their height and canopy. They also alter the rate of evapo-transpiration, affecting the water table. For example Gum trees have a bad reputation in South Africa for lowering the water table.
iv) Exotic tree plantations usually consist of even-aged single species trees in a compartment or block, thus increasing the risk of attack by pets and disease. While it may be argued that newly introduced species lack local pets, this advantage is lost when local pets adapt to the new host or when there is an invasion by an exotic pest species. This can be illustrated by the devastation throughout southern Africa to such trees as Cupressus lusitanica (Mexican cypress) and Pinus patula (hang-leaf pine), by the Cinara cupressii (cypress aphid), and the Pinus pini (pine woolly aphid), respectively. Similarly, Pinus radiate has suffered heavy damage from Dothistroma blight. Indigenous trees may not totally escape pest attack, but the risk is less
4.3.2 Introduced threatening species Zanzibar
i) Flora:
4.3.2 Introduced threatening species Zanzibar
i) Flora:
a) So many species have been noted to have invasive effect in Zanzibar. These species tend to dominate other species or suppress them. In Ngezi for instance Misopis eminii is a major threat to the biological diversity of the jungle although efforts to eradicate the species are in process.
b) Michikichi (Elaes guineensis) are starting to dominate both Ngezi and Masingini forest in Unguja and Pemba islands respectively. If no efforts are going to be take in the early stages loss in biodiversity should be expected at alarming rates in these jungles.
c) Acacia auriculiformis and Acacia mangium have dominated Chaani, Kibele, Unguja ukuu and Dunga forest plantations. The species are spreading to nearby villages and most part of Unguja Island. The tree was planted for poles, firewood and timber. Currently they have been found trying to invade and dominate Cheju abandoned rice farms. Makandi (2004) quoting (Denslow, 2002) explained Acacia auriculiformis as one of the most notable species and can rapidly suppress species that did not evolve with the newcomer species. The species reproduce rapidly to the extent that it invades and colonizes territories of natural forests, open land and farmyards, devastating other plants (Gordon, 1998, Makandi 2004).
Planted trees, especially exotics have a negative impact to native flora. In Chaani-Masingini plantation, plant species diversity is lower in areas occupied with the exotic trees, mainly Acacia auriculiformis than those without exotic trees. In Cheju, such is the case in the Acacia auriculiformis fields (Makandi 2004).
d) Lantana camara is all over the Zanzibar Island. Stems have even been found in coral rags and marginal lands.
e) Ethulia conozoides (Mbangi wazimu) is becoming serous in most rice farms in Pemba. Author’s personal observation has noted many rice fields in Muwambe, Ole Kianga, Konde and many part of Pemba to have been dominated by this species. Bad thing is that it is not palatable to crows and goats who use to feed on remaining rice straws after harvesting. This off course has negative repercussion to the free range cattle keeping in Pemba. Few stem have been noticed in Unguja island although the situation is not so serious compared to Pemba
f) The effect of Casuarina species is not so serious in the main island of Unguja and Pemba. However, in Small Island like Mnemba the species has dominated almost half of the island with its litters suppressing under growth of other species. Bawe Island is having few stems but their number is gradually increasing. Survey in other island has not been done to assess the impacts of invasive species. Hawaii islands regarded as some of the world’s richest locations in terms of plant variety are also currently facing the problem of rapid species depletion, which is partly attributed to the existence of Casuarina equisetifolia woodies among the pervasive class (Denslow, 2002, Makandi, 2004).
Other invasive species found in Zanzibar are Cordia Africana, Walter lilies (Magugu maji), Gmelina aborea, Eucalyptus spp. Pinus caribaea and Leucaena leucocephala.
ii) Fauna:
The most notorious alien invasive species in Zanzibar is the black Indian house crows (Corvus splendens). The bird species is attacking other species of birds including chicken. It also feed on retiles, bats and some marine creatures such as crabs. In many place the bird species used to be found in Zanzibar.
Crows attacks and fed on other birds. Habitat destruction all over the islands, make the birds un sheltered exposed to crows predation. Bird such as Treron pemba australis pembanis (swhili – Ninga, English-(green pigeon), Accipiter tachiro pembaenis (Mwewe), Poicephalus cryptoxanthes (Swahili - Kwau, English -brown headed parot), Dicrurus adsimilis (Swahili –Mramba, English-drongo) and Ciccoba woodfordii (Swahili–Bundi, English - African wood owl) are rarely seen in the Islands.
5.0) ZANZIBAR BIODIVERSITY AND ENERGY CRISIS
5.1 Biodiversity Related Policies Directives
i) Zanzibar Forest Policy (ZFP): The General objective is to 'Protect, conserve and develop forest resources for the social, economic and environmental benefit of present and future generations of the people of Zanzibar'.
Specifically, the goals are to strengthen the role of forestry in alleviating poverty and increasing equity in resource management and utilization, strengthen the role of forest resources in promoting economic development, in meeting demand for forest products, in creating income and in increasing national revenues and efficiency and protect and conserve forest resources including wildlife and flora, and enhance the role of forest resources in maintaining soil and water conservation and other environmental benefits. Main strategies for meeting these goals include enhancing the ability of Zanzibar forests to meet the demand for forest products, within the framework of sustainable management and promote efficient forest product utilization and substitution measures.
ii) Zanzibar Environmental Policy (ZEP): The primary objective of the is 'to protect and manage the country's environmental assets, such that their capacity to sustain development is unimpaired and Zanzibar’s rich environmental endowment is available for future generations to enjoy and use wisely' (DOE, 1992).
The policy aims at ensuring proper environment management accompanies economic development. For the present future generations. It also recognizes the special limitations and vulnerability of islands ecosystems, which increase the need for cooperation between all sectors of government and social and for commitment by all sectors to the agreed environment policy.
From these two policies we can learn that both have common target of conserving natural resources and environment for the benefit of the present and future generations taking into account that biomass fuels are mainly used for heating in Zanzibar. The average national percentage of household using biomass fuels for cooking is around 96% for the whole of Zanzibar, but in most rural areas the percentage of households using biomass fuels for cooking is over 98%, however, Zanzibar has no sustainable supply of biomass fuels (RGZ 2002a&b, RGZ 2006, DCCFF, 2008).
5.2 Study Findings on Wood Fuel Demand and Utilization.
i) Owen (1993) quoted by SONAREOCD, 2003 estimated the annual market size for wood fuels in Zanzibar town amount to about 129,00m3 of dry wood equivalent, or about 2.6 million bundles of firewood and 740,000 baskets of charcoal, while, the market value of these wood fuels is about TShs 383 million per year. He also found that 76% of wood fuels to Zanzibar town come from primarily Central and Southern districts where coral rag bushes are being cleared for shifting cultivation.
ii) Roeske (1993) suggested that, scarcity of wood fuel due to short supply is increasing constantly due to population growth. n his projections on the consumption and availability of wood fuels in Zanzibar until the year 2010, Poyry (1987) shows an increase of per capita consumption from 175,000m3/annum to 318,000m3/annum no wood fuel plantations are established. In the second alternative, where there will be establishment of wood fuel plantations and introduction of energy serving programmes, Poyry (1987) suggests the decrease of per capita demand from 203,000 m3/annum in 1990 to 178,000m3/annum in 2010. However, Masoud (1991) claims that Poyry's projections might exaggerate the severity of the wood fuel problem, and does not consider human acquaintance to wood fuel shortages (Roeske, 1993).
iii) Commission for Natural Resources- CNR (1997) found that household wood fuel consumption by volume is almost five times as much firewood than charcoal. Per capita consumption of solid wood for energy is higher in urban areas (0.6-0.8m3/annum) than in rural areas (0.4m3/annum), where coconut residues are burnt as a free or cheap alternative fuel sources. The Zanzibar wood fuel consumption per annum is estimated to be 301,238m3 (table 1). Taking a conversion factor of 0.023 and a mean of 38.7m3/ha (Silima et al, 1997), this is almost 7783 ha per annum (CNR, 1997).
iv) SONARECOD (2003) wood fuel consumption survey, revealed that:
Specifically, the goals are to strengthen the role of forestry in alleviating poverty and increasing equity in resource management and utilization, strengthen the role of forest resources in promoting economic development, in meeting demand for forest products, in creating income and in increasing national revenues and efficiency and protect and conserve forest resources including wildlife and flora, and enhance the role of forest resources in maintaining soil and water conservation and other environmental benefits. Main strategies for meeting these goals include enhancing the ability of Zanzibar forests to meet the demand for forest products, within the framework of sustainable management and promote efficient forest product utilization and substitution measures.
ii) Zanzibar Environmental Policy (ZEP): The primary objective of the is 'to protect and manage the country's environmental assets, such that their capacity to sustain development is unimpaired and Zanzibar’s rich environmental endowment is available for future generations to enjoy and use wisely' (DOE, 1992).
The policy aims at ensuring proper environment management accompanies economic development. For the present future generations. It also recognizes the special limitations and vulnerability of islands ecosystems, which increase the need for cooperation between all sectors of government and social and for commitment by all sectors to the agreed environment policy.
From these two policies we can learn that both have common target of conserving natural resources and environment for the benefit of the present and future generations taking into account that biomass fuels are mainly used for heating in Zanzibar. The average national percentage of household using biomass fuels for cooking is around 96% for the whole of Zanzibar, but in most rural areas the percentage of households using biomass fuels for cooking is over 98%, however, Zanzibar has no sustainable supply of biomass fuels (RGZ 2002a&b, RGZ 2006, DCCFF, 2008).
5.2 Study Findings on Wood Fuel Demand and Utilization.
i) Owen (1993) quoted by SONAREOCD, 2003 estimated the annual market size for wood fuels in Zanzibar town amount to about 129,00m3 of dry wood equivalent, or about 2.6 million bundles of firewood and 740,000 baskets of charcoal, while, the market value of these wood fuels is about TShs 383 million per year. He also found that 76% of wood fuels to Zanzibar town come from primarily Central and Southern districts where coral rag bushes are being cleared for shifting cultivation.
ii) Roeske (1993) suggested that, scarcity of wood fuel due to short supply is increasing constantly due to population growth. n his projections on the consumption and availability of wood fuels in Zanzibar until the year 2010, Poyry (1987) shows an increase of per capita consumption from 175,000m3/annum to 318,000m3/annum no wood fuel plantations are established. In the second alternative, where there will be establishment of wood fuel plantations and introduction of energy serving programmes, Poyry (1987) suggests the decrease of per capita demand from 203,000 m3/annum in 1990 to 178,000m3/annum in 2010. However, Masoud (1991) claims that Poyry's projections might exaggerate the severity of the wood fuel problem, and does not consider human acquaintance to wood fuel shortages (Roeske, 1993).
iii) Commission for Natural Resources- CNR (1997) found that household wood fuel consumption by volume is almost five times as much firewood than charcoal. Per capita consumption of solid wood for energy is higher in urban areas (0.6-0.8m3/annum) than in rural areas (0.4m3/annum), where coconut residues are burnt as a free or cheap alternative fuel sources. The Zanzibar wood fuel consumption per annum is estimated to be 301,238m3 (table 1). Taking a conversion factor of 0.023 and a mean of 38.7m3/ha (Silima et al, 1997), this is almost 7783 ha per annum (CNR, 1997).
iv) SONARECOD (2003) wood fuel consumption survey, revealed that:
a) Zanzibar depends mainly upon its forest resources as source of energy for cooking and heating. The wood fuel consumption research for Zanzibar (2002) revealed that the annual firewood consumption rate of Zanzibar is 3,068,977m3. Of these household fire wood consumption for Pemba accounts to 77%, while in Unguja Island is only 23%. The coral rag species accounts for 93.62% in Unguja Island while in Pemba clove tree is the most preferable for firewood at the household level. Basically firewood plays a great role for social and economic development of the people.
b) An annual household charcoal consumption of 416,974m3. Of these 53% is consumed in Pemba. Rural Pemba appears to be the main consumer of charcoal (29%) while the rural areas of Unguja consume about 20% of overall charcoal consumption in Zanzibar. While the situation in Pemba indicate adequate supply of wood fuel, the survey result indicate a shortage of wood fuel supply in Unguja Island where by additional resources (6,960m³ of charcoal and 4731m³ of fire wood) is imported from mainland Tanzania.
c) Power consumption rate of 445,806,997.24 Kwh for Zanzibar Islands. Unguja Island accounts to 72% of electricity consumption, the figure is much high than in Pemba Island. Indeed the research finding reveals about 15,974,302 litres of kerosene being consumed at the household level in Zanzibar. Of these, 64.8% is used in the main Island of Unguja while the remaining amount 35.2% is used in Pemba (SONARECOD, 2002).
d) Institutions are the second largest consumer of wood fuels in Zanzibar next to household. The consumption rate in different Zanzibar institutions reflect the variation in resource, socio-economic characteristics of specific localities and can not be separated from other aspects of resource management and people’s lives. These issues determine the potentiality of the areas in consumption rate of the energy resources. For instance, of the total institutions energy consumption in Zanzibar, 95.6% of firewood and 77% of electricity is used in the main island of Unguja. The island (Unguja) experience potential investment of various institutions compared to Pemba Island.
e) Per capita consumption of Zanzibar is 3.10 m3 of firewood, 0.42 m3 of charcoal, 16.13 liters of kerosene, 0.08 tons of coconut residues and 450.29 Kwh of electricity per annum. This per capita consumption is extremely higher compared to overall per capita consumption of Tanzania, which is only 1.9m3 of wood fuels.
f) The demand supply gap in Pemba is nearly invisible due to the fact that what is demanded is supplied and consumed. Importantly, availability of hydroelectric power in the main island of Unguja helps to cover the energy requirement in Zanzibar. In Unguja the actual demand is 704,355m3 of firewood, 197,049m3 of charcoal and 81,6740tons of coconut residues. But the actual supply of firewood is 699,6244m3 (99%) therefore there is a gap of 1% (4731m3) that is imported from main land Tanzania. The same as for charcoal where the supply is 190,089m3 (96%) leaving the gap of 4% (6960m3) imported charcoal.
g) Principally, there is no wood fuel importation to Pemba. For Unguja, wood fuel importation is facilitated through Malindi and Mkokotoni ports. Main commodities being charcoal and firewood. The five-year trend (1997 – 2002) of charcoal importation through Malindi port shows an average of 4367.18m3 (1407.53 tons equivalent to 59,016 polo/kiroba) per year, that makes an average of 363.92m3 (117.29 tons equivalent to 4918 polo/kiroba) per month. The trend for Mkokotoni port shows very little importation. An average of only 44.25m3 (14.26 tons equivalent to 598 polo) of charcoal were imported as an average importation per year for the trend of five years. Complying with SONARECOD results. DCCFF, (2002) also reported that 98% of the imported charcoal and firewood, through Malindi port, comes from Bagamoyo by local dhows.
h) Firewood importation through Malindi (1997/1998) reached an average of 266.66m3 (33883 pieces) per month. At Mkokotoni port records show that a trend for five years records only 19.99 m3 (2540 pieces) of firewood imported from 1997. This gives an average of only 3.34 m3 (424 pieces) per year.
i) DCCFF, 2008: In 2008, the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, through the department of commercial crops fruits and forestry, conducted an islands wide study on energy crisis mainly focusing on “challenges and opportunities for up scaling modern energy for pro-poor and wealthy creation in Zanzibar. The study intended to explore issues of demand and supply of wood fuel into urban areas and suggest alternative energy sources that are available and affordable to the different categories of energy consumers in Zanzibar so as to reduce pressure on demand of wood fuel. The study also examined the existing experiences and assessed existing barriers…alternative energy sources to minimize wood fuel demand.
v) DCCFF,2008, conducted a study to examine challenges and opportunities for up-scaling energy for pro-poor. Based on study results (Table 3), it was found that:
j) Biomass fuels (firewood, charcoal. coconut and agricultural residues) of which annual consumption for 2007 was 1.5 million m3, equivalent to 66 million Giga Joules, accounting for 94.7% of the total energy consumed.
iii) Petroleum products (Diesel, petrol, kerosene, LPG, lubrication oils etc) of which annual consumption for 2007 was 47,600 tones, equivalent to 1.7 million Giga Joules, accounting for 3.0% of the total energy consumed.
iv) Electricity consumption for 2007 was 445 GWh, equivalent to 1.6 Giga Joules accounting for 2.3 % of the total energy consumed.
v) The Main energy sources used in Zanzibar and their quantitative distribution to the energy balance are: biomass fuels 95%, petroleum products 3% and Electricity 2%. Low income and availability are the main causes for the high dependency on traditional biomass fuels for cooking.
vi) Sustainable, affordable and efficient energy services are major inputs for successful implementation of MKUZA and in achieving the MDGs. Also it was confirmed that scarcity of reliable, affordable and efficient energy services is increasingly becoming a constraint for implementing development programmes in Zanzibar. Of concern is the increasing scarcity of biomass fuels that are used by over 97 percent of the total population with little opportunities for up-ward fuel switch to modern energy services.
vii) Review of national strategic development programmes and sector policies showed that the underlying causes of the energy crisis in Zanzibar are lack of coordinated efforts and recognition of energy as a strategic input in sector and national priorities. Energy is taken for granted by sectors until when it is not there.
viii) With an increasing population rate of 3.1% a year, the population of Zanzibar in year 2007 was 1,147,002 with estimated biomass fuels consumption of over 1.5 million m3 and average per capita consumption of 1.3 m3. However, the estimated total annual allowable cut from the different land categories in Zanzibar is estimated to be around 723,727 m3. To meet the annual biomass fuels demand of 1.5 million m3 an over harvesting of over 776,273 m3 is taking place that is causing deforestation and environmental degradation.
ix) Trees for firewood supply have been depleted leading to deforestation and intensive use of farm residues as sources of domestic energy in most villages in particular the northern zone of Zanzibar. Also a large proportion of the charcoal currently consumed in Zanzibar is reported to be from the mainland as many of the local resources in the Island have been depleted (DCCFF, 2008).
The DCCFF 2008 study concluded that:
i) Government priorities and coordination for ensuring sustainable wood fuel supply and utilization for use has been weak hence the high dependency on biomass fuels.
ii) Options for minimizing the ongoing deforestation rate include adoption of efficient biomass utilization technologies as well as sustainable biomass production methods.
iii) Realistic energy development path for meeting energy demand for domestic cooking is to start with accessible and affordable energy sources.
iv) Community awareness on the use of modern energy services to replace biomass fuels for cooking is low. Also many people think LPG use for cooking is dangerous due to explosion.
v) Financing/ credit facilities for purchase of LPG cylinders and accessories as a package are necessary in the first place for increased uptake and use of LPG in developing countries which includes Zanzibar.
vi) Bulk storage facility of LPG in Zanzibar is inevitable to enhance easy availability and supply.
vii) There exists limited availability of current data on biomass resources in Zanzibar.
5.3 Zanzibar Energy crisis and the loss of biodiversity
Survey result proves the hypothesis that coral rag areas are the major suppliers of charcoal to Zanzibar town, where as Mangifera indica (mango tree) seems to be the most preferred fruit tree for charcoal. Although Durio zibethinus (mdoriani) appears to be of low calorific value as compared to many other species, surprisingly, it has been converted to charcoal. The inclusion of low value tree species in wood fuel market indicates scarcity of wood fuel. Acacia species (Acacia auriculiformis and A. mangium) the newly introduced tree species for wood fuel are gaining popularity as they rank third in charcoal species
Firewood transportation results to Zanzibar town revealed almost similar results to charcoal transportation to Zanzibar town. Coral rag species ranked higher followed by mixed spp, Acacia spp, Cocos nucifera and Mangifera indica. This result also tells us that fruit trees are being cut for firewood. The most mentioned ones are Cocos nucifera, Mangifera indica, Durio zibethinus, Syzygium cuminii, Eugenia caryophyllus (E. caryophyllus) and citrus species.
SONARECOD (2003) found that preferred Species by Wood fuel Traders in Unguja Island Zanzibar town are mostly coral rag species (90%). Others are Mytenus mosambisensis (Mnusi), Mangrove species, Mangifera indica (Muembe), Syzygium cuminii (Mzambarau), Bridelia micrantha and Sorindeia madagascariensis (Mpilipili doria). In Pemba island Parinari curatellifolia (Mibura), Mrekeche (Unidentified), Mangifera indica (Mwembe), Eugenia caryophyllus (Mkarafuu), Uapaka guinensis (Mchenza msitu), Bridelia micrantha (Mkarati), Syzygium cuminii (Mzambarau), Anacadium occidentale (mikorosho), Erythrophloeum suaveolens (miwavi), Mangrove species and Psidium guajava (mipera)
The species consumption trend for wood fuel in Zanzibar shown above indicates how serious the situation is in terms of biodiversity loss in small island state like Zanzibar and its consequences towards livelihood as fruit trees and national economic trees are being humiliated for energy.
Importation of wood fuel from mainland Tanzania has also a negative effect to the coastal ecosystems of mainland d and the islands a swell. The SONARECODS (2003) results revealed that most of the charcoal imported to Zanzibar town comes from Bagamoyo through local dhows. Major species in charcoal market are Afzelia quazensis (m’bamba kofi, mkongo), Mgovu and mkuruti (Local names to Bagamoyo), while Xylocarpus granatum (Mkomafi) is a common imported firewood species.
6.0) CLIMATE CHANGE AND BIODIVERSITY OF ZANZIBAR
National wide study to assess the impact of climate change to Zanzibar vegetation and environment in general has not yet been conducted. However, changes in climatic variables such as changes in rain intensity, duration and seasonal variations are believed to be the impact of cobalt climatic changes. Changes in rain patterns are some tomes is associated with changes happening in the tidal currents and wind movements.
According to Mustellin et al 2009, Zanzibar is included in the global sea level observing system (GLOSS), however, no much research conducted currently concerning climate change but change taking place can be linked to possibility of climate change induced impact.
Although no much study conducted on climate changes Mustellin quoting the director of Zanzibar’s section, Tanzania Metrological Agency, Mr. Khamis A. Suleiman noted that “several extreme weather incidences have taken place during the past years in Zanzibar. For example on 21st March 2008 Zanzibar experienced the highest rise in sea –level, which caused flooding of the old town. The warmest temperature recorded in Zanzibar since the commencement of the weather station at Zanzibar international airport 68 years ago was in 27th February 2008 when the station recorded a temperature of 39.4 Celsius. And at the same day same time lowest mean sea level pressure of 1000.6 mb was also recorded. In addition the Victoria garden station recorded 471 mm of rainfall within 24 hours on 16 of April 205 which was the highest ever recorded in the last 50 years. According to the director, these are example of extreme weather variables that can be linked to changing conditions”
Changes in sea water level, has lead to beach erosion in many places of Zanzibar such as Jambiani, Kiwengwa and Nungwi.
Coastal forest buffer zones are defined to be areas with high vulnerability to erosion and areas need of vegetation cover, the coastal forest buffer zones in Mustellin et al (2009) study did not represented separate buffer zones which could cause relocation of structure or community for that matter.
7.0) CONCLUSTION REMARKS.
There is a need to have integrated environmental policy in Zanzibar. The policy shall have to consider critically issues on biodiversity conservation, energy and climate changes. The policy should clearly stipulate issues that shall boost and sustain national economy and livelihood of local communities. While national aim is to 'Protect, conserve and develop forest resources, biodiversity in boosting national economy, special efforts are crucial in working closely and with international organizations so that not to confront with global protocols and convections.
Specifically, the goals and strength have to be directed towards poverty and pro-poor livelihood improvement. Equity in resource management and utilization must be a flaged agenda and priority. Main strategies for meeting these goals include enhancing the ability of Zanzibar forests to meet the demand for forest products, within the framework of sustainable management and promote efficient forest product utilization and substitution measures (Commission for Natural Resources’ -CNR, 1995).
The current Zanzibar Environmental Policy also emphasis on protection and proper management of national environmental assets, such that their capacity to sustain development is unimpaired and Zanzibar’s rich environmental endowment is available for future generations to enjoy and use wisely' (DOE, 1992). Of course assets in this context include forestry and associated resources.
The new integrated policy that is going to be formulated shall have to considers limitations and vulnerability of islands fragile ecosystems, (such as Jozani, Ngezi, Kiwengwa Masingini and mangroves), which increase the need for cooperation between all sectors of government and social and for commitment by all sectors to the agreed environment policy. This is why integrated policy is crucial at this Juncture.
The process of IEP formulation should considers the following, as an bench marks and stepping stones in planning and strategizing policy statements:-
i) The Main energy sources used in Zanzibar and their quantitative distribution to the energy balance are: biomass fuels 95%, petroleum products 3% and Electricity 2%. Low income and availability are the main causes for the high dependency on traditional biomass fuels for cookingize for wood fuels in Zanzibar.
ii) Wood fuels to Zanzibar town come from primarily Central and Southern districts where coral rag bushes are being cleared for shifting cultivation.
iii) Population growth in relation to wood based precuts demands. Reducimg per capita demand
iv) Zanzibar depends mainly upon its forest resources as source of energy for cooking and heating. The wood fuel consumption Zanzibar is over 3,068,977m3.. with annual household charcoal consumption of 416,974m3 .
v) Institutions are the second largest consumer of wood fuels in Zanzibar next to household.
vi) Per capita consumption of Zanzibar is 3.10 m3 of firewood, 0.42 m3 of charcoal, 16.13 liters of kerosene, 0.08 tons of coconut residues and 450.29 Kwh of electricity per annum. This per capita consumption is extremely higher compared to overall per capita consumption of Tanzania, which is only 1.9m3 of wood fuels.
vii) The Main energy sources used in Zanzibar and their quantitative distribution to the energy balance are: biomass fuels 95%, petroleum products 3% and Electricity 2%. Low income and availability are the main causes for the high dependency on traditional biomass fuels for cooking.
viii) Sustainable, affordable and efficient energy services are major inputs for successful implementation of MKUZA and in achieving the MDGs. Also it was confirmed that scarcity of reliable, affordable and efficient energy services is increasingly becoming a constraint for implementing development programmes in Zanzibar. Of concern is the increasing scarcity of biomass fuels that are used by over 97 percent of the total population with little opportunities for up-ward fuel switch to modern energy services.
ix) Review of national strategic development programmes and sector policies showed that the underlying causes of the energy crisis in Zanzibar are lack of coordinated efforts and recognition of energy as a strategic input in sector and national priorities. Energy is taken for granted by sectors until when it is not there.
x) With an increasing population rate of 3.1% a year, the population of Zanzibar in year 2007 was 1,147,002 with estimated biomass fuels consumption of over 1.5 million m3 and average per capita consumption of 1.3 m3. However, the estimated total annual allowable cut from the different land categories in Zanzibar is estimated to be around 723,727 m3. To meet the annual biomass fuels demand of 1.5 million m3 an over harvesting of over 776,273 m3 is taking place that is causing deforestation and environmental degradation.
xi) National wide study to assess the impact of climate change to Zanzibar vegetation and environment in general has not yet been conducted. However, changes in climatic variables such as changes in rain intensity, duration and seasonal variations are believed to be the impact of cobalt climatic changes
xii) Several extreme weather incidences have taken place during the past years in Zanzibar, indicating extreme weather variables that can be linked to changing conditions
xiii) Coastal forest areas and biodiversity hot spots in the coastal zone and interior lands are defined to be areas with high vulnerability.
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OTHER IMPORTANT LINKS
Department of Commercial Crops Fruits & Forestry (DCCFF)
www.dccff.com/archives/tp045.pdf
Department of Commercial Crops Fruits & Forestry (DCCFF)
www.dccff.com/archives/tp110.pdf
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